Transfer of Learning: A Complete Guide for Teachers
Help learners apply knowledge in new contexts. Evidence-based strategies for near and far transfer of learning across subjects and key stages.
Transfer of learning is the ability to apply knowledge, skills, and strategies acquired in one context to new and different situations. As a teacher, mastering how to creates this skill in your students is crucial for helping them move beyond rote memorisation to genuine understanding they can use throughout their lives. This comprehensive guide provides you with research-backed strategies, practical classroom techniques, and proven methods to transform how your students connect and apply their learning. Discover why some lessons stick whilst others are quickly forgotten, and learn exactly how to design experiences that build truly transferable knowledge.
Key Takeaways
teachers" loading="lazy" width="auto" height="auto">Transfer of Learning: From Classroom to Real World
What Is Transfer of Learning?
Transfer of learning describes the process by which knowledge, skills, or strategies acquired in one situation influence performance in another. When a student learns to write persuasive essays in English and then successfully applies those argumentation skills in history, transfer has occurred. When a child masters addition facts and uses that knowledge to understand multiplication, transfer is at work.
Key Takeaways
- Transfer of learning is not an automatic outcome of instruction; it requires deliberate pedagogical design: Teachers must explicitly teach for transfer, moving beyond mere content delivery to foster deep understanding and the ability to apply knowledge in novel contexts (Perkins & Salomon, 1989). Effective teaching for transfer involves helping learners identify underlying principles and connect new learning to prior knowledge.
- Distinguishing between near and far transfer is fundamental for effective instructional planning: Near transfer involves applying knowledge to similar contexts, often benefiting from extensive practice, whilst far transfer requires learners to abstract principles and apply them to vastly different situations (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999). Understanding these distinctions allows teachers to tailor strategies, from varied practice for near transfer to explicit analogy-making for far transfer.
- Rote memorisation significantly impedes genuine transfer, whereas meaningful learning actively promotes it: Learners who deeply understand concepts, rather than just recalling facts, are far more likely to apply that knowledge flexibly and effectively across different domains (Ausubel, 1968). Teachers should prioritise instructional methods that encourage conceptual understanding, critical thinking, and the integration of new information with existing cognitive structures.
- Specific instructional strategies, such as analogical reasoning and metacognitive prompts, are highly effective in cultivating transfer skills: Encouraging learners to draw parallels between different problems or contexts, and explicitly teaching them to monitor and regulate their own learning processes, significantly enhances their ability to transfer knowledge (Gick & Holyoak, 1980). These strategies help learners develop the flexible thinking necessary to adapt their learning to new challenges.
The concept dates back to Edward Thorndike and Robert Woodworth's research in 1901, which challenged earlier assumptions about mental discipline. Before their work, educators believed that studying rigorous subjects like Latin or geometry would train the mind in ways that transferred broadly to other domains. Thorndike and Woodworth found something more nuanced: transfer depends heavily on the degree to which two situations share common elements. This cognitive load theory perspective suggests that identical elements between learning and application contexts predict how readily transfer will occur.
Perkins and Salomon's (date unspecified) research deepened understanding. They described "low road" transfer, using one cognitive process. "High road" transfer, another cognitive process, also exists, they found.
Near vs Far Transfer Explained
Near transfer occurs when students apply learning to situations that are similar to the original context, such as using fraction skills learned with pizzas to solve problems about pies. Far transfer happens when students apply knowledge to very different contexts, like using scientific method principles learned in biology to evaluate claims in a news article. Near transfer happens more naturally, while far transfer requires explicit teaching of connections and abstract principles.
Types of Learning Transfer
| Transfer Type | Description | Example | Teaching Approach |
|---|---|---|---|
| Near transfer | Similar contexts | Fractions to decimals | Highlight similarities |
| Far transfer | Different contexts | Chess to strategic planning | Explicit bridging |
| Positive transfer | Prior learning helps | Spanish helps Italian | Build on foundations |
| Negative transfer | Prior learning hinders | Driving abroad | Address interference |
| Vertical transfer | Basic to complex | Addition to multiplication | Scaffold progression |
Research from Barnett and Ceci (2002) shows near transfer works better than far transfer. Knowing this helps teachers understand why some learning applications feel easy. Other learning applications can frustrate learners (Perkins and Salomon, 1992).
Near transfer happens when learning and application seem alike. Learners solving two-digit sums then three-digit sums show this (Singley & Anderson, 1989). Features are similar, procedures connect directly. Automatic car skills transfer easily between models (Haskell, 2001; Barnett & Ceci, 2002).
Far transfer, by contrast, involves applying learning to contexts that appear quite different on the surface. Using strategic thinking developed through chess to inform business decision-making would constitute far transfer. Applying mathematical concepts from the classroom to analyse real-world economic data requires far transfer. The connections aren't obvious, and the contextual features differ substantially.
Research consistently shows that near transfer happens more readily than far transfer. This finding has profound implications for education. If we want students to apply classroom learning to genuinely novel situations, we cannot simply hope transfer will occur spontaneously. We must design instruction specifically to promote it.
Why Does Transfer Often Fail?
Several interconnected factors explain why students frequently struggle to apply what they've learned to new contexts.
Knowledge Remains Context-Bound
When students learn information in a particular setting, that knowledge often becomes tied to the specific cues, examples, and contexts present during learning. A concept introduced using only textbook problems may remain mentally linked to those exact problem formats. When students encounter the same concept in a different guise, they fail to recognise it.
Encoding specificity, a key idea, links learning conditions to memory (Tulving & Thomson, 1973). Learners remember best when tested in the same context as they learned. Varying teaching helps learners apply knowledge outside the initial setting (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Shallow Understanding
Researchers Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) found learners sometimes memorise facts instead of grasping concepts. Learners recall information for tests but struggle to apply knowledge flexibly. This happens because they don't understand the core principles (Bransford et al., 2000).
Deep understanding involves grasping what something is and why it works, when it applies, and how it relates to other concepts. Without this depth, students possess knowledge they cannot deploy adaptively. This connects directly to the importance of developing student metacognition, as learners need to understand their own knowledge structures.
Missing Retrieval Cues
Even when students possess transferable knowledge, they may not retrieve it at the appropriate moment. The new situation doesn't activate the relevant prior learning because the surface features differ too much from the original learning context.
This retrieval failure explains why students sometimes claim they "never learned" something they actually studied extensively. The knowledge exists in memory, but the current context doesn't trigger its retrieval. Retrieval practise across varied contexts can help address this problem.
Key Learning Transfer Theories
Identical Elements Theory
Thorndike's original theory proposed that transfer depends on the degree to which two situations share identical elements. The more overlap in specific skills, knowledge, or procedures, the more transfer should occur. This explains near transfer well but offers limited guidance for promoting far transfer.
Generalization Theory
Building on earlier work, generalization theory suggests that transfer depends on learners abstracting general principles from specific instances. When students extract underlying rules, patterns, or schemas, they can apply these abstractions to new situations even when surface features differ.
Researchers, like Gick and Holyoak (1983), suggest learners must find deeper similarities. Schema building then helps learners with knowledge transfer. Follow-up work by Gentner (1983) supports this further.
Perkins and Salomon's Framework
Perkins and Salomon's influential framework distinguishes two mechanisms through which transfer operates:
Low road transfer happens automatically (Singley & Anderson, 1989). Practise varied skills to create strong responses (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901). New situations trigger these well-practised responses if stimuli are similar (Perkins & Salomon, 1992). This mostly supports near transfer (Detterman, 1993).
Researchers Perkins and Salomon (1992) described this as high road transfer. Learners carefully think about and abstract information. They find ways to use this knowledge in new situations. Explicit teaching helps learners make these connections (Barnett & Ceci, 2002). Practice aids abstraction too (Bransford et al., 1999).
Instructional Strategies That Promote Transfer
Teach for Deep Understanding
Learners need conceptual understanding for knowledge transfer. Teachers should move beyond memorisation (Bransford et al., 2000). Instead, explore principles, relationships, and reasoning (Donovan et al., 1999). Genuine understanding helps learners apply knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Ask students to explain why, not just what. Use questioning strategies that push beyond recall to analysis and application. Encourage students to articulate the reasoning behind procedures rather than simply executing steps mechanically.
Use Multiple Varied Examples
Gick and Holyoak (1983) found varied examples boost transfer better than one alone. Learners grasp concepts when examples share structure, say Gentner et al (2003). Surface details should differ across examples, according to Bransford et al (2000).
Learners understand concepts better through varied examples (Bruner, 1966). If persuasive writing examples are all political, learners may limit its application. Varied examples aid learners in grasping transferable principles (Gick & Holyoak, 1983).
Make Connections Explicit
Don't assume students will spontaneously recognise when previously learned knowledge applies. Explicitly point out connections between current learning and prior knowledge. Show how concepts from one subject area apply in another.
Teachers can model the thought process of recognising transfer opportunities. When introducing new content, explicitly activate relevant prior knowledge by asking "What do you already know that might help here?" or "Where have we seen something similar before?" This supports metacognitive development.
Practise Retrieval Across Contexts
The context in which students practise retrieving knowledge matters enormously for transfer. If all practise occurs in identical conditions, knowledge becomes bound to those conditions. Varying the contexts in which students practise promotes more flexible, transferable learning.
Design homework, classwork, and assessments that present familiar concepts in unfamiliar formats or applications. Mix problem types rather than blocking practise by topic. These interleaving strategies may feel more difficult but produce more transferable learning.
Teach Abstract Principles and Their Applications
Learners grasp abstract ideas easier than specific routines. Teaching the 'why' with 'how' helps learners see principles working. This boosts transferability, according to research by Gick and Holyoak (1983) and others.
Understanding interests helps learners negotiate successfully. Show learners how this works, rather than just teaching techniques. This principle, applied across contexts, improves negotiation skills (Thompson, 1990; Fisher & Ury, 1981).
Promote Metacognitive Awareness
(Barnett & Ceci, 2002). Learners benefit by looking for ways to use their knowledge. (Barnett & Ceci, 2002). Instructors can boost learner transfer by directly addressing how it works. (Perkins & Salomon, 1992).
Explicitly discuss the challenge of applying learning to new situations. Help students develop habits of mind that include asking "Where else might this apply?" Encourage reflection on when and how to use various strategies and approaches.
Near Transfer vs Far Transfer: The Learning Distance Gap
Cross-Curricular Transfer Examples
Researchers (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999) found learners need help to see connections between subjects. Teachers should highlight shared ideas, like proportional reasoning in maths and geography scale drawings. Cross-curricular transfer needs teacher coordination and focus on concepts across subjects (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).
Different subject areas offer different opportunities and challenges for transfer.
Mathematics
Research shows learners struggle applying maths outside the classroom. Mathematical ideas are abstract, which should make transfer easier. Despite this, learners often find application difficult (Whitehead, 1929; Boaler, 1993).
Researchers have shown connections aid learning. Connect maths to relevant situations to help learners understand (Bransford et al., 2000). Use real world maths problems to boost reasoning (Willingham, 2009). The concrete pictorial abstract method helps learners bridge theory and practice (Bruner, 1966).
Reading Comprehension
Researchers (e.g., Cromley & Azevedo, 2007) found reading strategies, such as summarising, work across subjects. Transfer needs teaching comprehension as general skills, not just subject content. McKeown et al. (2009) agree explicit instruction helps learners use strategies successfully.
Teach reading comprehension strategies as transferable tools. Practise applying the same strategies across different text types and subjects. Make explicit that the summarising strategy used in English also applies when reading science textbooks or historical documents.
Writing
Writing skills have strong transfer potential, as the basic elements of effective communication apply across contexts. However, each genre and discipline has specific conventions that require additional learning.
Teach writing's key principles directly. These involve audience awareness, clear structure, and evidence, say Flower and Hayes (1981). Beaufort (1999) and Prior (1998) note genre specifics. Learners gain skills that transfer and adapt.
Scientific Reasoning
Researchers (Klaczynski, 2017; Kuhn, 2005) found learners must connect scientific thinking to daily life. This connection helps learners use scientific reasoning in real-world decisions. Explicitly teach this link to improve transfer (Adey & Shayer, 2015).
Researchers Kuhn (1993) and Zimmerman (2000) say scientific reasoning helps learners assess media claims. They add that this helps with personal decisions and understanding events. Encourage learners to use scientific thinking outside the lab setting.
Assessing Transfer of Learning
Teachers can assess transfer by presenting problems in new contexts that require the same underlying principles but have different surface features from practise examples. Effective AI-powered assessment includes asking students to explain their reasoning, solve problems with novel elements, or apply concepts to real-world scenarios they haven't encountered before. The key is ensuring assessment tasks genuinely require transfer rather than simple recall or repetition of practiced procedures.
Assessments often miss transfer because they use familiar content (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999). If transfer matters, include transfer tasks in assessments (Barnett & Ceci, 2002). This helps learners apply knowledge to new situations (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996).
Design Transfer Assessments
Include assessment items that present familiar concepts in unfamiliar contexts or formats. Ask students to apply learning to novel problems they haven't encountered during instruction. These assessments reveal whether students can actually use their knowledge flexibly.
Use Performance Assessments
Performance assessments that require students to complete authentic tasks often provide better evidence of transfer than traditional tests. When students must apply knowledge to solve genuine problems, produce real products, or demonstrate skills in context, they reveal their capacity for transfer.
Assess Explanation and Application
Ask students not just to demonstrate skills but to explain when and why to use them. Can they identify contexts where particular strategies or concepts apply? Can they articulate the reasoning behind procedures? These responses reveal depth of understanding that predicts transfer.
Common Misconceptions About Transfer
The General Skills Myth
Weinstein et al. (2018) show directly teaching general skills won't always boost learner performance everywhere. While some strategies transfer, expertise is mostly specific to the subject (Willingham, 2009; Kirschner, 2017).
This doesn't mean we should abandon teaching thinking skills, but we should recognise that critical thinking in one domain doesn't automatically transfer to another. Students need opportunities to practise thinking skills across multiple domains.
The Practise Myth
Researchers Bransford and Schwartz (1999) found practice alone doesn't guarantee learning transfer. Simply repeating problem types fosters recall, argue Bjork and Bjork (1992). It doesn't develop adaptable learners who can apply knowledge flexibly (Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1996).
The Understanding Myth
Some assume that if students truly understand something, they will automatically transfer that understanding. While deep understanding facilitates transfer, it doesn't guarantee it. Students may understand a concept thoroughly yet fail to recognise its relevance in new situations.
Classroom Transfer Teaching Examples
Bridging analogies link new ideas to known ones. Comparison charts show principles in different contexts. Ask learners, "Where else does this apply?" 'Hugging' strategies (Brown et al., 1989) match practice to real use. 'Bridging' teaches key concepts (Gick & Holyoak, 1983; Perfetto et al., 1983). Vary practice problems, keeping structures constant (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992).
For teachers seeking to enhance transfer in their classrooms, several practical strategies emerge from the research.
Create opportunities for students to encounter the same concepts across different contexts throughout the year. Rather than teaching topics in isolation, help students see connections across units and subjects. Use graphic organisers to make these connections visible.
Design homework that asks students to find applications of classroom learning in their lives. Encourage students to identify where concepts from class show up outside school. Discuss these applications together.
This interdisciplinary approach helps learners make connections. Teachers should collaborate across subjects (Vygotsky, 1978). When learners see connected concepts, they recognise transferable knowledge (Bransford et al., 2000). This strengthens understanding in multiple areas (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007).
Research by Gentner (1983) shows analogies help learners. Gentner and Holyoak (1985) found comparing new to familiar concepts aids understanding. Encouraging learners to create analogies builds transferable knowledge (Duit, 1991).
Revisit concepts throughout the year rather than teaching them once and moving on. Each revisit offers an opportunity to encounter the concept in a new context, building the varied experience that promotes transfer.
The Teacher's Transfer Toolkit: Building Transferable Learning
Essential Transfer Research for Teachers
Perkins and Salomon (1992) discuss high-road and low-road transfer. Bransford and Schwartz (1999) explore preparing learners for future learning. Barnett and Ceci's (2002) taxonomy helps teachers understand transfer. These papers provide useful ideas and frameworks for classroom practice.
Research on transfer spans over a century and includes some foundational works that continue to inform educational practise. These papers offer deeper insight into the mechanisms and challenges of transfer.
This seminal paper established the distinction between low road and high road transfer that continues to guide educational research. Perkins and Salomon explain why conventional instruction often fails to produce transfer and outline principles for designing instruction that promotes more flexible learning. Their framework offers practical guidance for teachers seeking to help students apply knowledge beyond its original context.
Barnett and Ceci (2002) offer a framework for describing transfer situations. This framework uses content, context, time, function and modality. It helps educators think carefully about transfer successes and failures.
Bransford and Schwartz challenge narrow conceptions of transfer focussed solely on initial learning. They introduce the concept of "preparation for future learning," suggesting that prior learning should be evaluated by how well it prepares students to learn new things, not just whether it transfers directly. This broader view has significant implications for curriculum design.
Retrieval practise with varied examples improves learner transfer, (Kornell et al., 2011). This research links testing effect studies with transfer work. Practise testing can boost adaptable learning, (Pan et al., 2015; Butler, 2010).
Research on learning, including transfer, is synthesised. Transfer needs understanding, organised knowledge, and metacognition. The report gives principles for instruction that promotes transfer. It influences educational policy and practise significantly. (Bransford et al., 2000; National Research Council, 2000).
Note: The landmark "How People Learn" (2000) was updated in 2018 with "How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures" (National Academies Press), incorporating additional research on cultural and contextual factors in learning transfer.
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What Is Transfer of Learning? Definition and Core Concepts
Transfer of learning occurs when students successfully apply knowledge, skills, or strategies learned in one context to solve problems or complete tasks in new situations. Think of it as the bridge between classroom learning and real-world application; when a student uses fraction concepts from maths to accurately measure ingredients in food technology, they're demonstrating transfer.
At its core, transfer involves recognising patterns and connections between what students already know and what they're encountering for the first time. This process requires more than simple recall; it demands that learners identify relevant similarities between contexts and adapt their knowledge accordingly. For instance, when Year 8 students apply their understanding of persuasive writing techniques from English lessons to create compelling science fair presentations, they're engaging in meaningful transfer.
Transfer strength relies on key things. Deep initial learning is vital; memorisation rarely works (Bransford et al., 2000). Similar contexts boost success; multiplication helps more with division than graphs (Barnett & Ceci, 2002). Explicitly teach learners to spot links. Show how maths graphs link to geography data; this aids independent recognition (Anderson, 1983).
Understanding transfer helps explain why some learning experiences create lasting impact whilst others fade quickly. When students learn the water cycle through memorising definitions, they might struggle to explain local flooding. However, when they explore the concept through experiments, diagrams, and connections to weather patterns, they develop transferable understanding that applies to new environmental contexts.
Understanding Near Transfer vs Far Transfer: Key Differences for Educators
Near transfer and far transfer represent two distinct ways students apply their learning, each requiring different teaching approaches. Near transfer occurs when students apply knowledge to situations closely resembling the original learning context. For instance, when a learner who has learnt to solve equations with one variable successfully tackles similar equations with different numbers, they're demonstrating near transfer. The contexts share surface features, making the connection obvious.
Far transfer, by contrast, happens when students apply learning to seemingly unrelated situations. When a student uses their understanding of scientific method from biology lessons to evaluate claims in a newspaper article, they're engaging in far transfer. The connection between contexts is conceptual rather than superficial.
Perkins and Salomon (1989) found near transfer is automatic, but far transfer needs instruction and thought. This impacts your teaching. Encourage near transfer with varied examples but similar structures. For instance, teach fraction addition using pizzas and cups, keeping the process consistent.
For far transfer, you need to make abstract principles explicit. When teaching persuasive writing, don't just focus on essay structure; discuss how persuasion works across contexts, from advertising to political speeches to scientific arguments. Encourage students to identify these principles themselves through comparison activities. Ask them to find similarities between how they solve maths word problems and how they approach reading comprehension tasks.
The key is recognising that whilst near transfer helps build fluency and confidence, far transfer develops the flexible thinking students need for real-world problem-solving. Both deserve deliberate attention in your teaching practise.
Common Barriers: Why Transfer of Learning Fails in the Classroom
Despite our best efforts, students often struggle to apply what they've learnt in one subject to another, or from classroom to real-world situations. Understanding why transfer fails is the first step towards addressing these challenges in your teaching practise.
The most significant barrier is context dependency. Students frequently treat each subject as an isolated silo, unable to recognise connections between similar concepts. For instance, a learner who confidently calculates percentages in maths may struggle with the identical skill when analysing data in geography. This happens because knowledge becomes 'welded' to the specific context where it was first learnt, a phenomenon cognitive scientists call the problem of inert knowledge.
Surface learning hinders knowledge transfer. Learners memorise facts, but lack understanding of why (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999). A Year 7 learner might recite the water cycle for science. However, they may struggle to apply this to geography's weather patterns.
Time and curriculum pressures limit teaching. Teachers must rush content, hindering topic connections. Assessment focusing on recall, not use, discourages transfer (Bransford et al., 2000). Learners then adapt their strategies to exam demands.
Explicitly link subjects in lessons to help learners. When teaching persuasive writing, reference history source analysis techniques. Let learners regularly practise applying concepts (Bransford et al., 2000). Design assessments to test knowledge application, not just recall (Willingham, 2009).
15 Strategies to Promote Learning Transfer
- Teach for understanding, not just procedures
- Make abstract principles explicit
- Use multiple examples and contexts
- Encourage students to generate their own examples
- Highlight structural similarities between problems
- Practise retrieval in varied contexts
- Use analogies to bridge domains
- Teach metacognitive awareness
- Interleave different problem types
- Avoid over-contextualising learning
- Explicitly discuss when and how to transfer
- Use comparison and contrast activities
- Provide opportunities for application
- Build robust foundational knowledge
- Space practice across different settings
Frequently Asked Questions
Why does near vs far transfer matter for teaching?
Near transfer means learners use skills in similar situations (Barnett & Ceci, 2002). Think fractions with pizzas, then pies. Far transfer means learners use knowledge in different contexts (Perkins & Salomon, 1992). Biology's scientific method helps evaluate news articles. Teachers must explicitly teach links for far transfer to happen.
Why do my students struggle to apply what they've learnt in my lessons to new situations or other subjects?
Transfer often fails because knowledge remains tied to the specific context where it was learnt, students develop only shallow understanding without grasping underlying principles, or they simply don't retrieve relevant knowledge when facing new situations. When students learn using only textbook problems, for example, their knowledge becomes mentally linked to those exact formats and they fail to recognise the same concept in different contexts.
How can I design lessons for transfer?
Research shows teaching for transfer builds understanding, not just memory. Use different examples and help learners apply knowledge (Barnett & Ceci, 2002). Support learners in finding general rules (Anderson, 1983). Practise retrieval in various situations to improve access (Bransford et al., 1999).
What are some practical examples of transfer of learning that I might see in my classroom?
Learners may use English skills in history, (Perkins & Salomon, 1992). Addition helps learners grasp multiplication, (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901). Chess strategies can aid maths problem-solving, (Campitelli & Gobet, 2008). Learners apply science skills across subjects, (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999), but need guidance for transfer.
What are low road vs high road transfer?
Extensive practise builds automatic, low road transfer (Singley & Anderson, 1989). This supports transfer between similar situations. High road transfer needs learners to find and apply principles (Perkins & Salomon, 1992). Explicit teaching helps learners make connections for far transfer (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).
How can I help students overcome the problem of knowledge remaining context-bound?
Vary examples, problems, and situations when teaching. Avoid just using textbooks (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999). Discuss how principles apply across contexts. This helps learners spot patterns and use knowledge flexibly (Bjork & Bjork, 2011; Brown et al., 1989).
Further Reading: Key Research Papers
These peer-reviewed studies provide the research foundation for the strategies discussed in this article:
Designing Teaching for Transfer in English for Academic Purposes View study ↗ View study ↗
4 citations
Heon Jeon (2022)
Researchers found multilingual learners struggle to transfer writing skills (Andrews, 2017). Teachers should actively develop transfer thinking habits in learners. Explicit instruction connecting classroom learning to real tasks is critical (Baker et al., 2021).
Learners use generalizations and analogies in junior high (Bruner, date unspecified). Research by various scholars explored this. They examined how learners use these skills (Vosniadou & Ortony, 1989; Goswami, 1992). These studies inform our understanding of learner thinking (Gentner et al., 2001; Richland & Simms, 2015).
Lilis Marina Angraini et al. (2023)
Bruner's theory explains maths learners' pattern recognition. Learners' connection skills vary with presentation, research shows. (Jerome Bruner) Teachers can structure lessons supporting connections between problem types.
Transfer of Learning and Teaching: A Review of Transfer Theories and Effective Instructional Practices View study ↗
90 citations
Shiva Hajian (2019)
Learners struggle to use knowledge in new situations. This review explores why, pinpointing effective teaching strategies. The research, (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999; Engle, 2006), provides guidance for knowledge transfer. Teachers can use these insights, (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Lobato, 2006), to design meaningful instruction.
Teaching for transfer of second language learning View study ↗
12 citations
M. James (2018)
Learners transfer skills between contexts, like musicians do (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999). Teachers can use evidence-based strategies to aid skill application outside lessons (Barnett & Ceci, 2002). Language educators can structure lessons for real transfer, not isolated grammar, as suggested by researchers like Salomon and Perkins (1989).
Sternberg (1977) found analogical reasoning aids geometry problem solving. Presmeg (1986) and Krutetskii (1976) noted visualisers and verbalisers solve problems in unique ways. Pitta-Pantazi et al. (2020) and Lowrie et al. (2017) researched how thinking styles affect geometry problem solving using analogies.
Ali Shodikin et al. (2023)
Visual or verbal learners solve geometry problems using comparisons (Presmeg, 1986). This research faces the common issue of learners not achieving in geometry. Cognitive preferences affect their geometric connections (Battista, 1999; Clements, 2003). Teachers can differentiate lessons, aiding understanding for all learners (Stylianou, 2011; Tall, 2013).
