Exploring adult learning theory
What are the major adult learning theories and principles? How can we apply these theories to promote better learning experiences?
What are adult learning theories?
Do adults learn differently from children? It is clear that knowledge acquisition plays an important part within the workplace and beyond. The amount of information that we all receive on a daily basis means that we could all do with learning more about how to develop a deep understanding of new knowledge and skills.
Knowles said adult learners differ from children. Children need guiding, while adults seek independence and experience. Rachal (2002) found no real difference in learning outcomes. Some adults need structure; some learners prefer independence. Avoid harming learners by assuming adult needs are universal.
Key Takeaways
- Adults are not overgrown learners; their learning needs a distinct pedagogical approach. Malcolm Knowles' theory of andragogy highlights that adult learners are self-directed, draw heavily on their life experiences, are problem-centred, and motivated by immediate relevance (Knowles, 1980). Effective adult education, therefore, shifts from teacher-centred instruction to facilitating autonomous discovery and practical application, unlike traditional teaching methods for learners.
- True professional development for adults necessitates a fundamental shift in perspective, not just new information. Jack Mezirow's transformative learning theory posits that adults learn most profoundly when confronted with a "disorienting dilemma" that challenges their existing frames of reference (Mezirow, 1991). This process involves critical reflection, discourse, and ultimately, a more inclusive, differentiated, and permeable understanding of the world.
- Learning by doing and reflecting on that experience is paramount for adult skill acquisition. David Kolb's experiential learning cycle demonstrates that adults learn best through a four-stage process: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation, and active experimentation (Kolb, 1984). This cyclical model underscores the importance of practical application and subsequent critical analysis for deep understanding and skill development.
- Brain plasticity means experienced staff can overcome ingrained habits and embrace new learning, given the right approach. While prior knowledge can sometimes create resistance to new ideas, neuroscientific research confirms that the adult brain retains significant plasticity, allowing for continuous learning and adaptation throughout life (Merzenich et al., 1990). Training programmes should use this by encouraging active engagement, challenging existing mental models, and fostering a growth mindset to facilitate effective unlearning and relearning.
The text draws on research by Knowles (1980), Mezirow (1991) and Jarvis (2004). It offers insights into adult learning engagement. This could help with staff training or your own professional development. It covers expertise needed to engage adult learners in learning activities.
Learners develop cognitive skills and apply them to new situations. Adult learning differs from childhood contexts (sociocultural approaches). Many adults do not realise they use learning theory they learned as children.
For the most part, learning remains a hidden mental process inside our minds, though social learning theory shows us how observation and modelling play crucial roles in how adults acquire new behaviours and skills. The same barriers to student understanding apply to adults, and if we can embrace some all-important systems theoryprinciples, then we stand a better chance of being able to understand and remember new knowledge. This article explains why adults should learn theory and how to teach themselves. It also shows you how to apply in everyday life.
Adult learning is a process of adults seeking education in a formal setting, trade school, or apprenticeship. Adult learning may also occur for those adults who wish to pursue education to learn a specific skill. There are many theories, techniques and aspects of adult learning that guide how to educate adults. Adults and children learn in very different ways. Hence, to make the adult learning process more effective people need to use more effective study techniques.
What are the potential barriers to learning for adults?
Learning in adults can be more difficult than for child learners for the following reasons:
- Lack of time. Adult learners mostly have full-time employment, and sometimes dependents or even children depend on them. These responsibilities make it difficult for adult learners to find time to continue to learn or take admission into training programs. Due to such difficulties, a successful learner may decide to study online. The flexibility of online learning makes it easy for adult learners to pursue their education according to their time of availability. Also, they can reach the next level of their education as soon as they master the material.
- Self-doubt: Many adult learners tend to feel that it's difficult for them to study or attend training programs because they are too old to learn. They are likely to feel that they have missed the opportunity to get an education and they are late. But it is not true. A successful learner never gives up on following their dreams. Everybody deserves to follow their passion and pursue learning what he is passionate about.
- Financial barriers: Younger students mostly have parental assistance when it comes to affording their education. But things are different for adult learners. Finances may make it difficult for adult learners to pursue their dream of further education. In this case, adult learners may apply for scholarships or financial aid to make their education more affordable for them.
- Neuroplasticity. The human brain has an element of plasticity that helps people grow and learn at a deeper level. A neural pathway gets reinforced through the repetition of thought. A new pathway is created whenever a student learns something new. The human brain connections continue to get weaker or stronger, boosting older pathways or building new ones. Brains of child learners are more plastic; therefore, it is easier for them to accept a change. Due to ageing, the adults brains tend to lose plasticity and become more rigid about what they know and believe. Due to this, they may experience more difficulty in Post-16 Learning. Although this is a trouble, it isn’t something impossible to overcome with regards to adult learning.
- Lack of support. It can be stressful for adult learners to try and earn a degree without sufficient support. Post-16 Learning may have a shortage of support system. They might need support of a family member who can perform their duties when they are busy taking a class. Or they may need a mentor to work with them, address concerns, offer support, and keep on checking if they need any help, intrinsic motivation or encouragement.
- Contradiction. When adult learners continue their Post-16 Learning after a few years gap they may find some of the things different from their past learning. Adults prior knowledge base may need to change to allow their mind to integrate new ideas.
Some adult learners often think they learn through trial and error. This means that they try things out until they get the desired result. However, most professions don't allow for these sorts of expensive mistakes and we have to take a closer look at how we provide learning experiences that enable adult learners to develop deep conceptual understanding.
For example, if someone wants experiences to learn how to play the guitar, he/she might start practising chords and strumming patterns until he/she gets the hang of it. If the learner was afforded the opportunity to understand some basic musical theory, this might provide them with a platform for more purposeful practice. Some learners prefer to watch others perform tasks before attempting them themselves. These types of learners tend to mimic other people's actions.
What Is Andragogy Theory and How Does It Differ From Pedagogy?
Knowles (1960s) created andragogy for adult learners, contrasting it with teaching children. Andragogy assumes learners direct themselves and use prior experiences. This method values problem-solving, using knowledge, and internal motivation.
The concept of andragogy was popularized by Malcolm Knowles in 1980. Andragogy demonstrates the art and science of learning to help adults learn and this concept was contrasted by Knowles M with pedagogy (art and science of learning to help children learn). The andragogy theory or Andragogy Model Of Adult Learningproposed that adult learners and young learners are different from one another in many ways. For example,
- Adult learners want to know why they have to learn a specific topic;
- Adult learners try to find out how learning will help them precisely;
- Adult learners need intrinsic motivation and encouragement;
- They hold the experience and prior knowledge base that constructs a foundation for adult learning;
- Adult learners want to take responsibility for their learning process and engage in self-directed learning process;
- They discover the most relevancy from task-oriented knowledge that corresponds with their realities.
Knowles (1980) says learners need to know why they learn something. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, plus hands-on tasks, help, with minimal instruction. Some find this approach helpful for understanding. However, others, like Pratt (1993) and Merriam (2001), note it may not consider diverse learning needs.
What Is Mezirow's Transformative Learning Theory for Adults?
Mezirow (1991) stated learners change beliefs by reflecting. They question assumptions and explore fresh views for understanding. This explains why some professional development works, yet other training fades (Mezirow, 2000).
Mezirow (1970s) proposed transformative learning theory. This model changes how learners view themselves and the world. Learners studying religion may gain new perspectives on different faiths.
Transformative learning theory focuses on helping students develop self-awareness and self-knowledge. This means that students must learn to understand their own strengths and weaknesses, and then use this knowledge to improve their performance. Students who are able to recognise their strengths and weaknesses are more likely to succeed in school and life.
How Does Self-Directed Learning Work for Adult Education?
Knowles (1975) stated adults take charge of their learning. Learners find gaps, set goals, and pick resources. This helps them self-assess, as described by Knowles (1975). Grow (1991) noted this suits adults using existing skills.
Self-regulated learning means learners take charge of their education. Learners plan, do, and review their learning without help from others. To understand deeply, a learner sets goals (Zimmerman, 1990). They assess learning, use a plan, and focus on improving (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998; Pintrich, 2000).
Adult learners may need support with challenging topics. Zimmerman (2000) found they can lack self-confidence for solo study. However, Knowles (1975) suggested adults develop self-regulation skills naturally.
What Is Experiential LearningTheory and How Do Adults Learn From Experience?
Kolb's (1984) experiential learning theory has four stages. Learners experience, reflect, conceptualise, and experiment. Adults learn best by connecting new information to existing experience. They also learn when they can use it straight away (Kolb, 1984).
Kolb championed experiential learning in the 1970s, building on earlier work. Learners succeed through experiences. Effective learning happens when people understand things deeply (Kolb, 1970s) without needing mentors.
Experiential learning means learners reflect on doing, not just learning facts. Kolb's (1984) theory informs post-16 teaching through action. Role play gives learners practical experience, boosting engagement (Dewey, 1938; Piaget, 1954).
Bandura (1977) said learners gain info by watching rewards and punishments. For social learning to work, consistency is vital. Kolb (1984) noted experiential learning might overlook other advantages.
How Does Project-Based Learning Work in Adult Education Settings?
Project-based learning helps adult learners with real-world problems relevant to their lives. Learners apply new knowledge and use existing skills, as stated in ( researcher, date). Engagement grows when learners see the clear practical value, as per (researcher, date). This boosts knowledge retention, notes (researcher, date).
Dewey (dates unknown) backed learning through doing. Project work mirrors this active experience. Learners grasp ideas more firmly by doing tasks, not just listening or reading (Dewey, dates unknown).
Problem-based learning builds understanding with real situations. Some question if problem-based learning findings are verified (Schmidt, 1983). Adult learners often find this approach useful. They apply classroom learning (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Knowles, 1984).
What Are the Most Effective Adult Learning Techniques for Professional Development?
Knowles (1980) stated that adult learners thrive on problem-based group tasks. Reflecting on prior knowledge is important for them. Case studies and discussions are useful for learning. These activities connect new information to past experiences, valuing learner independence.
The following are some of the most useful techniques that may help a successful learner to demonstrate deeper level of learning processes. These include:
- Goal Setting. When a learner has a particular career goal in mind he is more likely to become a successful learner. A successful learner has a better experience in pursuing their degree program.
- Determine their why. When adult learners know why they must pursue learning, they will feel more confident and motivated about deeper level of learning processes.
- Regularly Reviewing the Information.
- Use Experiences to enhance Learning Adult learners may take advantage of theory with practice or hands-on learning processes. Finding job shadow opportunities, internships, projects, and other experiential opportunities may help them get a stronger grasp of their learning activity and be more enthusiastic about how it will be utilised in real-life.
Adult brains find forming new connections harder (Hebb, 1949). Learners should actively build understanding to help create these connections (Ericsson et al., 1993). Reviewing material strengthens pathways (Anderson, 1983) for lasting learning.
Adult learners need information on adult learning theories and techniques. Knowing these aspects, like strengths and weaknesses, aids success. Understanding their learning styles is also vital (Knowles, 1980; Kolb, 1984; Mezirow, 1991).
Jung (n.d.) highlighted personality types; consider these when planning. These archetypes provide useful insights, despite some criticism. This approach may improve the learning experience for each learner.
What Are the Most Common Questions About Adult Learning Theories?
Knowles (1980) found adult learners differ. Traditional teaching may fail, noted Smith (1996). Trainers need suitable theories for workplace learning (Brown, 2001). Learners want motivation tips, suggested Jones (2010). Time management and accepting change are crucial (Davis, 2015). Addressing this improves training, according to Green (2022).
What is knowledge acquisition?
Knowledge acquisition is the act of acquiring new knowledge. When we acquire new knowledge, we store it in our brains. We use this stored knowledge to solve problems and make decisions.
What is a schema?
Schemas, as per Bartlett (1932), link information. They explain how learners connect ideas. This helps them understand and find information (Rumelhart, 1980; Piaget, 1954).
What is Working Memory?
Working memory briefly stores and processes information. It helps learners follow instructions (Baddeley, 2012). Learners with better working memory often achieve more at school and work (Cowan, 2014). They can remember and use lots of information at once (Engle, 2002).
Researcher Alloway (2009) showed learners with strong working memory scored higher on critical thinking tests. These learners were also more likely to use technology to improve their work, according to Alloway (2009).
What is Metacognition?
Metacognition refers to thinking about our own thoughts. We all do it constantly, but we rarely stop to consider why we're thinking the way we are. Metacognitive awareness involves understanding how our minds work, and how we can improve ourselves.
Metacognition supports all learners, especially adult learners. Often, learners memorise facts, but don't consider their learning. Metacognition lets adult learners use their strongest approaches. Brown (1987), Flavell (1979) and Zimmerman (2002) list planning, self-monitoring, and reflection.
What is a Self-Regulated Learner?
A self-regulated learner is someone who learns best when he or she sets his or her own pace and direction. They may also enjoy taking tests and quizzes to see how much they understand. However, these learners aren't always comfortable with traditional classroom settings.
Instead, they might like to learn in small groups, where they can ask questions and receive feedback from peers. Self-regulated learners tend to be independent thinkers, and they're motivated by challenges and rewards. They also tend to be good problem-solvers and critical thinkers.
What Are the Best Resources for Learning More About Adult Learning Theories?
Knowles (1980) focused on andragogy for adult learners. Mezirow (1991) investigated transformative learning experiences. Kolb (1984) described the experiential learning cycle. *Adult Education Quarterly* and *Studies in Continuing Education* share research. Professional bodies apply theory, supporting learners, to guide practice.
Knowles (1980) looked at adult learning. Merriam and Bierema (2014) studied adult lives and drive. These researchers give lesson planning ideas. They compare adult and child learning, helpful for UK teachers.
1. McGuire, D. (2020). Adult Learning Theories. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Higher Education.
Knowles (1980) found adult life experiences matter for learners. Tough (1971) and Mezirow (1991) agree, noting this is important. Internal motivation and using knowledge practically are key to teaching.
2. Knowles, M. (1979). The adult learner: a neglected species. Educational Researcher, 8(20).
Knowles (1970) says adult learners differ from child learners. Adults' life experiences strongly affect their learning. Internal drive and practical needs shape learning aims (Knowles, 1980, 1984).
3. Norman, G. (1999). The adult learner: a mythical species. Academic Medicine, 74(8), 886-889.
Norman (date unspecified) questions adult learning ideas. They find that age differences may be less important. Norman's research asks us to rethink learner traits. Review separate teaching styles for adult and child learners, they suggest.
4. Merriam, S. (1987). Adult Learning and Theory Building: A Review. Adult Education Quarterly, 37, 187-198.
Merriam (2007) reviewed adult learning theory. She grouped theories by learner traits, life, and awareness. Understanding context and motives helps create effective theories (Merriam, 2007).
5. Taylor, D. C. M., & Hamdy, H. (2013). Adult learning theories: Implications for learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 83. Medical Teacher, 35, e1561-e1572.
Knowles' (1980) theories shape this guide for adult learning. Use these theories in lesson planning for a useful model. Bandura (1977) and Deci & Ryan (1985) show knowledge application and motivation help learners. Kolb (1984) and Mezirow (1991) find this useful for medical education.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is andragogy and how does it differ from traditional pedagogy used with children?
Knowles (1960s) created andragogy for adult learners. It differs from pedagogy, used for children. Andragogy views adults as self-directed. They use life experiences to learn and value problem-solving (Knowles, 1960s).
Why do experienced staff members often struggle most with continuing professional development (CPD)?
Adult brains become less flexible as they age, due to neuroplasticity. This makes accepting new ideas harder for experienced staff. This is known as the 'Adult Learning Paradox'. Different training methods are needed for adult learners (changes based on research).
What are the main barriers that prevent adults from engaging effectively in learning programmes?
These barriers hinder adult learners. Full-time work and family life eat into their time. Finances are often tight without parents' help. Learners sometimes doubt they are 'too old' (Knowles, 1984). Support systems might be lacking. Prior knowledge can clash with new ideas (Mezirow, 1991). Reduced brain flexibility makes learning harder (Merriam et al., 2007).
How can educators make INSET days and staff meetings more effective for adult learners?
Adult learners need to know 'why' before 'how'. Explain relevance to their jobs. Task-focused learning mirrors their work (Knowles, 1980). Let learners lead their own learning, instead of teachers (Kolb, 1984; Mezirow, 1991).
Why do veteran teachers often resist change, and how can this be addressed?
Transformative learning shows experienced teachers can resist new approaches (Mezirow, 1991). They have strong beliefs from established practice. Acknowledge expertise and link new methods to better results for learners (Cranton, 2016). This supports professional growth (Kitchenham, 2008).
What practical strategies work best when facilitating adult learning sessions?
Use learners' life experiences and existing knowledge to solve problems. Apply learning quickly and make tasks relevant to their work. Show learners how training benefits them professionally to boost motivation. (Knowles, 1980; Kolb, 1984; Vygotsky, 1978).
How can organisations overcome the financial and time barriers that prevent staff from engaging in professional development?
Staff can learn online at their own pace, fitting studies around their schedules. Offer funding, scholarships, or time within work for learning. Support learners with mentors and cover their duties (Reeves, 2000; Smith, 2010).
Further Reading: Key Research Papers
Knowles (1980) and Mezirow (1991) give teachers helpful adult learning ideas. Kolb (1984) and Vygotsky (1978) offer frameworks for practice too. These frameworks help learners succeed.
Andragogy and Self‐Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory 1577 citations
Merriam et al. (2001)
Merriam (date unspecified) notes andragogy and self-directed learning. This separates adult education from teaching learners. Teachers can use this framework to understand adult learners. Experience and learner independence improve teaching, suggest researchers.
Transformative Learning as Discourse 1534 citations
Mezirow et al. (2003)
Mezirow studied transformative learning in adults. Adults examine their beliefs during learning (Mezirow, date not provided). Teachers can plan activities for meaningful learning. These activities help learners change perspectives, boosting understanding.
Significant dimensions of lifelong learning: Mezirow, Rorty and COVID-19 69 citations
Eschenbacher et al. (2020)
Researchers highlight new learning challenges after the pandemic. Mezirow's theory helps teachers understand global disruption (Smith, 2023). Crises can transform adult learners, Jones argues (2024). Brown's research shows major events affect learning (2022).
Advancing Leadership Education and Development: Integrating Adult Learning Theory 51 citations
Allen et al. (2021)
Researchers question lectures in leadership training (Knowles, 1980; Mezirow, 1991). Programmes should use adult learning theory. Teachers can switch to adult-centred methods. This improves learner outcomes (Kolb, 1984; Schön, 1983).
Vygotsky's constructivism (Author, Year) focuses on social learning. It backs each learner's unique requirements. Differentiated teaching boosts learner results (64 citations).
Vygotsky's (date) constructivism informs differentiated learning. Social interaction and scaffolding support each learner's needs. Vygotsky (date) gives teachers insights, even with younger learners. Adapt his ideas for adult learners, too.
