Jean Piagets theory of Cognitive Development

What is Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?

The Theory of Cognitive Development by Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist, suggests that children's intelligence undergoes changes as they grow. Cognitive development in children is not only related to acquiring knowledge, children need to build or develop a mental model of their surrounding world (Miller, 2011). His work is regarded as the cornerstone in the field of developmental psychology. In this article, we examine the implications his work has for the intellectual development of children in classrooms.

In the 1920s, Piaget was working at the Binet Institute and his main responsibility was to translate questions written in English intelligence tests into French. He became interested to find out why children gave incorrect answers to the questions needing logical thinking (Meadows, 2019).

Piaget believed that these wrong answers revealed significant differences between the thinking of children and adults. Piaget proposed a new set of assumptions about the intelligence of children:

• Children think differently and see the world differently from adults.
• Children are not passive learners, they actively build up their knowledge about the surrounding.
• The most effective way to understand children’s reasoning is to think from children's point of view.

Piaget did not want to measure how well children can spell, count or solve problems to check their I.Q. He was more intrigued to find out how the fundamental concepts such as the very idea of time, number, justice, quantity and so on emerged (Greenfield, 2019).

Piaget used observations and clinical interviews of older children who were able to hold conversations and understand questions. He also made controlled observation, and used naturalistic observation of his own three children and developed diary description with charts of children's development.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the idea that children go through four stages of development, each with their own unique characteristics and abilities. The first stage, the sensorimotor stage, occurs from birth to around two years old and is characterized by the child's understanding of the world through sensory experiences and motor actions.

The second stage, the preoperational stage, occurs from around two to seven years old and is characterized by the child's ability to use symbols to represent objects and events. The third stage, the concrete operational stage, occurs from around seven to twelve years old and is characterized by the child's ability to think logically about concrete objects and events. Finally, the fourth stage, the formal operational stage, occurs from around twelve years old and is characterized by the child's ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically.

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Who exactly was Jean Piaget?

Jean Piaget was born on August 9, 1896, in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. His early life was marked by an intense curiosity and passion for the natural world, leading him to publish his first scientific paper on mollusks at the age of 10. After finishing high school, Piaget initially pursued studies in natural sciences at the University of Neuchâtel, where he earned his doctorate in zoology. However, his academic interests soon shifted to psychology, driven by a fascination with the development of human knowledge and cognition.

During World War I, Piaget worked as an army doctor, an experience that broadened his understanding of human behavior under stress and change. After the war, he studied psychology and philosophy in Zurich and Paris, where he worked with prominent psychologists such as Alfred Binet at the Binet Institute. This period marked the beginning of his deep dive into child development and experimental psychology.

In 1923, Piaget married Valentine Châtenay, and together they had three children. Observing their development provided Piaget with invaluable insights that formed the foundation of his theories on cognitive development. By the age of 30, Piaget had published his first significant work, "The Language and Thought of the Child," which established his reputation as a leading thinker in developmental psychology.

Piaget's career was distinguished by his association with several prestigious institutions. He held professorships at the University of Geneva and the University of Lausanne and collaborated with many international scholars. His major works, published by leading academic presses such as Harvard University Press, Oxford University Press, and Cambridge University Press, include "The Origins of Intelligence in Children" and "The Construction of Reality in the Child."

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Piaget's contributions to developmental psychology are profound. He introduced the concept of stage theory, proposing that children move through distinct stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. His research into the mental structures underlying these stages has significantly influenced educational practices and the understanding of child development. He also explored how children actively construct their understanding of the world through processes that involve assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

In addition to his theoretical work, Piaget was a proponent of active learning, advocating that children learn best through interaction with their environment rather than passive reception of information. His insights into language development, logical thinking, and the unique ways preoperational children perceive the world have become foundational in both psychology and education.

Piaget founded the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva and was honored with numerous accolades throughout his career. His legacy continues through the Jean Piaget Society, an organization dedicated to advancing research in developmental psychology and promoting his ideas.

Jean Piaget passed away on September 16, 1980, but his influence endures. His pioneering work on cognitive development and the stages of development remains a cornerstone of scientific knowledge in psychology, shaping how we understand the growth of human intelligence and learning.

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Stages of Cognitive Development

According to Jean Piaget, stages of development takes place via the interaction between natural capacities and environmental happenings, and children experience a series of stages (Wellman, 2011).  The sequence of these stages remains same across cultures. Each child goes through the same stages of cognitive development in life but with a different rate. The following are Piaget's stages of intellectual development:

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Sensorimotor stage (Object permanence)

From birth to 18-24 months

The infants use their actions and senses to explore and learn about their surrounding environment.

During this stage, children develop object permanence, which means they understand that objects continue to exist even when they can't see them. This is a crucial milestone in cognitive development as it allows children to start forming mental representations of the world around them. As they progress through the following stages, they will continue to build on this foundation of knowledge, ultimately developing more complex cognitive abilities.

A variety of cognitive abilities develop at this stage; which mainly include representational play, object permanence, deferred imitation and self-recognition.

At this stage, infants live only in present. They do not have anything related to this world stored in their memory. At age of 8 months, the infant will understand different objects' permanence and they will search for them when they are not present.

Towards the endpoint of this stage, infants' general symbolic function starts to appear and they can use two objects to stand for each other. Language begins to appear when they realise that they can use  words to represent feelings and objects. The child starts to store information he knows about the world, label it and recall it.

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Pre-operational stage (Symbolic thought)

From 2 to 7 years

The pre-operational stage is a crucial period in children's cognitive development. During this stage, children's thinking is not yet logical or concrete, and they struggle with concepts like cause and effect. They also have difficulty understanding other people's perspectives, which is why their thinking is egocentric. Additionally, their reasoning is based on intuition rather than logic, which can lead to errors in judgement. Despite these limitations, children in the pre-operational stage are still capable of incredible growth and learning, and it's important for parents and educators to provide them with the support and guidance they need to thrive.

Young children and Toddlers gain the ability to represent the world internally through mental imagery and language. At this stage, children symbolically think about things. They are able to make one thing, for example, an object or a word, stand for another thing different from itself.

A child mostly thinks about how the world appears, not how it is. At the preoperational stage, children do not show problem-solving or logical thinking. Infants in this age also show animism, which means that they think that toys and other non-living objects have feelings and live like a person.

By an age of 2 years, toddlers can detach their thought process from the physical world. But, they are still not yet able to develop operational or logical thinking skills of later stages.

Their thinking is still egocentric (centred on their own world view) and intuitive (based on children's subjective judgements about events).

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Concrete operational stage (Logical thought)

7 to 11 years

At this stage, children start to show logical thinking about concrete events. They start to grasp the concept of conservation. They understand that, even if things change in appearance but some properties still remain the same. Children at this stage can reverse things mentally. They start to think about other people's feelings and thinking and they also become less egocentric.

This stage is also known as concrete as children begin to think logically. According to Piaget, this stage is a significant turning point of a child's cognitive development because it marks the starting point of operational or logical thinking. At this stage, a child is capable of internally working things out in their head (rather than trying things out in reality).

Another key characteristic of the Concrete Operational Stage is the development of deductive reasoning. Children at this stage can use logic to draw conclusions and solve problems. They are able to understand that if A equals B and B equals C, then A must equal C. This type of reasoning allows them to understand more complex concepts and ideas, setting them up for success in their academic and personal lives.

Children at this stage may become overwhelmed or they may make mistakes when they are asked to reason about hypothetical or abstract problems. Conservation means that the child understands that even if some things change in appearance but their properties may remain the same. At age 6 children are able to conserve number, at age 7 they can conserve mass and at age 9 they can conserve weight. But logical thinking is only used if children ask to reason about physically present materials.

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Formal operational stage (Symbolic reasoning)

Age 12 and above

At this stage, individuals perform concrete operations on things and they perform formal operations on ideas. Formal logical thinking is totally free from perceptual and physical barriers. During this stage, adolescents can understand abstract concepts. They are able to follow any specific kind of argument without thinking about any particular examples.

During the Formal Operational Stage, children begin to develop the ability to think abstractly and use symbolic reasoning. This means they can think beyond concrete, physical objects and concepts and start to understand more complex and abstract ideas. They can solve hypothetical problems and understand metaphors, analogies, and other abstract concepts. This stage typically occurs between the ages of 11 and 16, but can vary depending on the individual child's development.

Adolescents are capable of dealing with hypothetical problems with several possible outcomes.This stage allows the emergence of scientific reasoning, formulating hypotheses and abstract theories as and whenever needed.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development made no claims about any specific age-associated with any of the particular stage but his description provides an indication of the age at which an average child would reach a certain stage.

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How is Piaget's Theory Different from others?

In the realm of child development and cognition, theories often intersect, each providing a unique lens to understand the intricate processes that govern a child's growth. Renowned psychologists like Jean Piaget have made significant contributions, laying the foundation for further exploration. The following table outlines several prominent psychologists and their theories, highlighting the synergies with Piaget's ideas. The intertwined nature of these theories underscores the multifaceted nature of cognitive development, painting a comprehensive picture of how children learn, adapt, and evolve.

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1. Lev Vygotsky: A Russian psychologist, Vygotsky proposed the Sociocultural Theory, emphasizing the significant influence of social interaction on cognitive development. His ideas resonate with Piaget's in the sense that both underscore the importance of active engagement in learning.

However, Vygotsky places a stronger emphasis on social factors in shaping cognitive schemas.

2. Erik Erikson: Erikson's theory of psychosocial development aligns with Piaget's ideas in its stage-based approach. While Piaget focuses on cognitive development, Erikson provides a broader view of social and emotional development, complementing the understanding of a child's evolving abilities.

3. Lawrence Kohlberg: Known for his stages of moral development, Kohlberg's work parallels Piaget's understanding of how children progress through distinct stages. Both theories underscore the idea that children's abilities and understanding evolve with time and experience.

4. Urie Bronfenbrenner: Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory provides a macro view of child development, considering the interplay of various environmental systems. This theory can be seen as complementary to Piaget's focus on the individual child's cognitive growth, adding a broader perspective on the environmental factors influencing this development.

5. Albert Bandura: Bandura's Social Learning Theory posits that children learn by observing and imitating others. This theory aligns with Piaget's emphasis on active engagement in learning, but adds a social aspect to the learning process, complementing Piaget's focus on individual exploration and discovery.

6. Howard Gardner: Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that there are multiple ways to be intelligent, going beyond the traditional IQ concept. His theory doesn't directly align with Piaget's work, but offers a different lens to view cognitive abilities of children, thereby enriching our understanding of child development.

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Key Concepts Relating to Piaget's Schema Theory

1. Schemas – A schema indicates both the physical and mental actions involved in knowing and understanding. Schemas represent the categories of knowledge that help people to understand and interpret the world. A current schema can be built on and and become more complex. In many ways, this is the very nature of learning and teaching. Schema in psychology is a term that is used a lot, we think that schools and teachers need to turn their attention to this concept.

If we talk about learning as something that needs to be built then the idea of cognitive schemas makes perfect sense. These hidden worlds of the learner are what we as educators are trying to develop. In many ways our ability to build on our schemas is a fundamental aspect of intelligence. This could be where metacognition plays a central role.

Piaget believes that a schema involves a category of knowledge and the procedure to obtain that knowledge. As individuals gain new experiences, the new information is modified, and gets added to, or alter pre-existing schemas.

A child may have a schema about cats. For example: if his only experience has been with small cats, the child may believe that all cats are small. If this kid encounters a large cat, he would take in this new knowledge, altering the old schema to incorporate this new piece of information.

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2. Adaptation- Adaptation is a type of schema that explains how persons understand and learn new information. According to Piaget's theory, There are two ways in which adaptation can occur.

• Adaptation through Assimilation – When new information is taken from the outside world and is incorporated into a previously existing schema, it is called assimilation. This process is thought to be subjective, as people tend to modify information or experience that should match with their pre-existing beliefs. In Schema's example, seeing a cat and labelling it “cat” is an example of assimilating an animal into the child’s cat schema.

• Adaptation through Accommodation – Accommodation occurs when persons process new information by altering their psychological representations to fit the new information. It is an additional constituent of adaptation that includes altering people's current schemas to suit the new information, this process is called accommodation. In accommodation, people change their existing ideas or schemas, due to a new experience or new information. These processes may give rise to the development of new schemas.

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3. Equilibration – According to Piaget, each child tries to create a balance between accommodation and assimilation, which is only possible by implementing a mechanism called equilibration. As children grow through each stage of cognitive development, it becomes essential to uphold a balance between the application of past knowledge (assimilation) and altering attitude to acquire new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration assists and demonstrates how children must move from one stage of thinking into the next stage.

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Educational Implications of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Although, later researchers have demonstrated how Piaget's theory is applicable for learning and teaching but Piaget (1952) does not clearly relate his theory to learning.

Piaget was very influential in creating teaching practices and educational policy. For instance, in 1966 a primary education review by the UK government was based upon Piaget’s theory. Also, the outcome of this review provided the foundation for publishing Plowden report (1967).

Discovery learning – the concept that children learn best through actively exploring and doing - was viewed as central to the primary school curriculum transformation.

Piaget believes that children must not be taught certain concepts until reaching the appropriate cognitive development stage. Also, accommodation and assimilation are requirements of an active learner only, because problem-solving skills must only be discovered they cannot be taught. The learning inside the classrooms must be student-centred and performed via active discovery learning. The primary role of an instructor is to facilitate learning, rather than direct teaching. Hence, teachers need to ensure the following practices within the classroom:

1. Pay more attention to the learning process, rather than focusing on the end product of it.
2. Use active teaching involving reconstructing or rediscovering "truths." (See Universal Thinking Framework).
3. Use individual and collaborative activities (to allow children to learn from one another, see our blog post on dialogic pedagogy).
4. Devise situations that offer useful problems, and develop disequilibrium in children (see this post on critical thinking).
5. Assess a child's development level so appropriate tasks can be created.

Here are a list of potential activities thatare designed to align with the cognitive abilities typical of each developmental stage according to Piaget's theory.

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The Lasting Impact of Piaget’s Research on Modern Psychology

Jean Piaget's contributions to the field of psychology have had profound and lasting implications for those working in child development. His pioneering work in cognitive development has provided a framework that informs educational practices, child psychology, and the broader scientific community. Here are seven of the most significant implications of Piaget’s work for professionals in child development roles:

1. Understanding Developmental Milestones
   • Piaget’s stage-based model, detailing the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages, helps professionals identify and understand key developmental milestones in children. This knowledge is crucial for creating appropriate learning and intervention strategies.
2. Designing Age-Appropriate Learning Experiences
   • By emphasizing the concept of schemas, Piaget’s work guides educators in designing learning experiences that align with children’s cognitive development. This ensures that educational content is both accessible and challenging for different age groups.
3. Promoting Active Learning
   • Piaget’s constructivist approach, which advocates for active, hands-on learning, encourages educators to create environments that support exploration and discovery. This approach helps children develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
4. Developing Tailored Educational Practices
   • Insights into the cognitive processes of preoperational children inform the development of teaching methods that are specifically tailored to young learners. This knowledge helps educators foster cognitive growth effectively.
5. Enhancing Research Methodologies
   • Piaget’s observational techniques and experimental psychology methods set a high standard for research in child development. These methodologies continue to inform contemporary studies, ensuring rigorous and insightful research outcomes.
6. Integrating Cognitive Development into Curricula
   • Educational curricula worldwide have integrated Piagetian principles, promoting practices that support the natural cognitive development of children. This ensures that educational systems nurture students’ intellectual growth effectively.
7. Continuing Professional Development
   • The Jean Piaget Society and other organizations dedicated to his legacy provide ongoing professional development opportunities. These platforms help educators and child development professionals stay informed about the latest research and best practices in the field.

Piaget’s legacy extends beyond theoretical contributions, offering practical guidance that helps those in child development roles enhance their practice, support children’s learning, and contribute to the advancement of scientific knowledge in developmental psychology.

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Critical Evaluation of Piaget's Theory

1. Support

Piaget’s ideas have enormous influence on developmental psychology. His theories changed methods of teaching and changed people's perceptions about a child’s world.

Piaget (1936) was the foremost psychologist whose ideas enhanced people's understanding of cognitive development. His concepts have been of practical use in communicating with and understanding children, specially in the field of education (Discovery Learning).

Piaget's main contributions include thorough observational studies of cognition in children, stage theory of children's cognitive development, and a series of ingenious but simple tests to evaluate multiple cognitive abilities.

2. Criticisms

Do stages really exist? Critiques of Formal Operation Thinking believe that the final stage of formal operations does not provide correct explanation of cognitive development. Not every person is capable of abstract reasoning and many adults do not even reach level of formal operations. For instance, Dasen (1994) mentioned that only less than half of adults ever reach the stage of formal operation. Maybe they are not distinct stages? Piaget was extremely focused on the universal stages of biological maturation and cognitive development that he failed to address the effect of culture and social setting on cognitive development.

A contemporary of Piaget, Vygotsky argued that social interaction is essential for cognitive development. Vygotsky believes that a child's learning always takes place in a social context involving co-operation of someone more knowledgeable (MKO). This kind od social interaction offers language opportunities and according to Vygotksy language provides the basis of thought.

Hughes (1975) believes that Piaget underestimated children's abilities as his tests were frequently unclear and hard to understand. Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1966) were against the concept of schema. Behaviorism also disapproves Piaget’s schema theory as it is an internal phenomenon which cannot be observed directly. Due to this, they would claim schema cannot be measured objectively.

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Further Reading on Jean Piagets Theories

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development has profoundly influenced the field of developmental psychology, offering a comprehensive framework for understanding how children develop cognitive structures and mental stages. His work on human development, including his four stages of cognitive growth, has been widely discussed and critiqued in academic literature. Below are five key studies exploring Piaget's theory, each providing insights into different aspects of his work and its implications for education and developmental psychology.

1. Barrouillet, P. (2015). Theories of cognitive development: From Piaget to today. Developmental Review, 38, 1-12.

Summary: This study revisits Piaget's cognitive developmental theory and examines its evolution over the past four decades. It highlights how contemporary developmental psychology has built upon and diverged from Piaget’s original constructs, particularly in understanding cognitive structures and human development.

2. Sidik, F. (2020). Actualization of Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory in Learning. JURNAL PAJAR (Pendidikan dan Pengajaran).

Summary: This article explores the application of Piaget's theory in modern educational settings, emphasizing the importance of aligning teaching methods with students' developmental stages. It underscores the theory’s influence on effective educational practices and the understanding of child development.

3. Xiao, Y. (2001). Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory and its Inspirations on Teaching. Journal of Changsha University of Electric Power.

Summary: Xiao’s paper discusses the practical applications of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development in classroom teaching. It provides examples of how educators can design lesson content and methodologies that align with students' cognitive stages, enhancing their learning experiences.

4. Sanghvi, P. (2020). Piaget's theory of cognitive development: A review. International Journal of Modern Humanities, 7, 90-96.

Summary: Sanghvi provides a comprehensive review of Piaget's theory, detailing the four cognitive stages and their characteristics. The article also critiques Piaget’s contributions to developmental psychology and discusses their educational implications, particularly for understanding cognitive structures.

5. Ghazi, S., Khan, U., Shahzada, G., & Ullah, K. (2014). Formal Operational Stage of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory: An Implication in Learning Mathematics. Journal of Educational Research, 17, 71.

Summary: This study examines the application of Piaget's formal operational stage in teaching mathematics. It highlights how understanding cognitive stages can improve instructional strategies and enhance students' problem-solving and scientific inquiry skills, thus bridging knowledge gaps in math education.

These studies collectively emphasize the enduring relevance of Piaget’s theory in educational psychology, providing valuable insights into how his ideas can be applied to improve teaching and learning processes.

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